Some years ago, after
delivering a 'sermon' as a visiting minister, one of the parishioners commented,
'Well, that was more of a teaching than a sermon.' 'Good,' I thought, but
I am not so sure the parishioner was offering a compliment.
Here's my distinction. 'Preaching' is
Christian rhetoric, and by this I mean the classical definition of rhetoric as
the 'art of persuasion.' Teaching, on the other hand, has to do with
delivering content and demonstrating method in analyzing a text and its subject
matter. At the back of the church building, the parishioners expecting
preaching may say, 'That was a really powerful sermon, pastor.' At the
end of a 'teaching' sermon, parishioners may say, 'Thank you for helping me to
see the meaning of that text, pastor.'
Classical rhetoric--a subject taught in the schools in antiquity--dealt with the following six areas of public speaking. In broad outline, these will be presented with the purpose of illustrating the difference between speaking that seeks to persuade an audience and speaking that seeks to instruct an audience in the true meaning of the Biblical text. As will be seen, there is overlap between rhetoric and teaching, and some good can be found in rhetoric. Yet the broader distinction is important, the difference between persuasive artistry and truthful teaching.
Before proceeding, however, I need to point out that the word ‘preach’ in English translations of the New Testament comes from the Greek, euangelizomai (proclaim the Good News) or kērussō (proclaim). Both words have to do with proclaiming the Gospel. Readers of Scripture should not read their own concept of ‘preaching’ in a 21st century, Western, Evangelical church into the meaning of the word ‘preach’ in the New Testament. We do find public speaking in the early Church, which was a proclamation of the Gospel meant to persuade the audience but on the basis of the truth of the Word and not on the persuasive artistry of the evangelist. We also find public speaking in the meetings of the early Church, but that was teaching of the Word (e.g., Acts 2.42).
What, then, was
involved in ancient rhetoric, the art of persuasion, and how might this be
relevant to a distinction between ‘preaching’ in the modern sense and teaching?
A. The
'rhetorical situation':
1. The exigence of the audience: what is the
subject matter itching for some rhetorical response from the speaker?
2. Knowing the audience: what is the best way to
catch the attention and to persuade this audience?
3. Obstacles: being aware of one's challenges as a speaker
in addressing this audience on this subject matter.
B. Choosing the right species of rhetoric for the speech/sermon.
Classical
rhetoric identified three species:
1. Judicial, addressing the past, aiming to find
what is just (or unjust), using reason, and focussing on the speech
itself. Judicial speech offers proof through enthymemes or
syllogisms. Judicial speech is used in lawcourts, and one might find it
in Christian rhetoric in apologetic discourses and debate forums. This
rhetoric comes closest to expository preaching.
2. Deliberative, addressing the future, aiming
to argue for what is expedient (or not expedient) in the circumstances, arguing
on the basis of authorities, and focussing on the speaker as an authority.
Deliberative speech provides proof by means of examples. Deliberative speech is
used in parliament, where arguments about the expedient course of action for
the nation abound. In Christian rhetoric, sermons often turn to
deliberative speech if they were not so from the beginning, since the preacher feels
an obligation to show the audience how to take what has been said into their
lives. Billy Graham's sermons provide fine examples of deliberative
sermons, being full of examples and aiming to convert the audience.
3. Epideictic (demonstrative or occasional)
speech, addressing the present, aiming to show what is honourable (or
dishonourable), arguing on the basis of emotion (to move the audience), and
focussed on the audience. Epideictic speech, like deliberative speech,
argues by examples. The difference is that the examples in deliberative
speech support the views of authorities, while the examples in epideictic
speech intend to move the emotions of the audience and convince them of what is honourable. Epideictic speech
might be found at special gatherings, such as weddings, birthdays, retirement parties, and other celebrations.
Preaching has become increasingly epideictic in larger, non-denominational churches.
Examples from the speaker's life are a staple in this sort of preaching,
however narrative sermons or 'big idea' sermons also fit this third type of
rhetoric. 'Big idea' preaching, popularised by Professor Haddon Robinson,
uses powerful stories to move an audience to accept a single, 'big idea' in the
text over against providing an exposition of the text. The audience is
not shown how the text delivers the big idea (which would be more teaching and
exposition) but is drawn by emotion to what the speaker has determined is the
big idea of the text. The example is more powerfully persuasive than the Biblical text, although there is a desire to be faithful to the text's big idea. (Frankly, texts are more complicated than a single big idea.) What the expository preacher would show to the
audience, the big idea preacher leaves back in the kitchen and only delivers a
tasty and well-presented dish to the diners.
Teaching is not necessarily persuasive discourse,
but in the case of preaching it is. The idea in education is that what is taught clearly will
persuade. Deliberative rhetoric, like teaching, argues by means of
authorities, but it leans heavily on voices pointing toward future action,
whereas teaching looks at authorities that interpret authoritative Biblical texts in the
past. Distinctions are somewhat arbitrary and can overlap. However,
the audience might be more persuaded in deliberative rhetoric because a
respected authority is cited (Calvin, Wesley, Stott) than that the Bible as authority
has been rightly interpreted. Teaching focusses on the interpretation
process and is based on the Bible's being the authoritative Word of God.
C.
Arrangement:
The arrangement of a speech is crucial in the
art of persuasion, and what one does in different parts of the speech is
important to understand. Judicial speech provides the best example for
studying arrangement as all the possible sections of a speech are included, and they
are:
1. The introduction. In this section, the
speaker seeks to 'hook' the audience--to make them want to hear more.
Emotion is more appropriate here than reason, although this depends also on the
audience and nature of the discourse.
2. The narration. In judicial speech, the
narration would explain what happened. In a sermon, giving the background
of a passage fills this role. The speaker may also offer a story of some
sort that establishes what needs to be spoken about or argued.
3. The proposed thesis for the speech.
This is a brief and clear statement of what the speech will cover.
4. The proof. As already mentioned, proof
may come in the form of reasons offered or examples. A more judicial type
of sermon is expository; it gives reasons for understanding the meaning of the
text. Deliberative and epideictic speeches dwell less in the text and
more in examples to persuade the audience on a course of action or against it
or what is honourable or dishonourable.
5. The conclusion. This needs to bring the
message home for the audience. In judicial speech, the focus is on a verdict. In
deliberative speech, it is a proposed course of action. In epideictic
speech, it is affirmation of what is honourable (or dishonourable).
D.
Rhetorical Invention:
'Invention' has to do with the kind of proof used--reason
(logos), authority (ethos), or emotion (pathos), as
already discussed in regard to the 'species' of the speech. Note that one
might use all three types of invention in any speech, however.
Also, types of reason
are discussed with regard to inartificial reason, artificial reason, and topics:
1. inartificial logos,
which is reasoning from outside the art of speaking: precedent, rumour,
torture, documents, oaths, witnesses.
2. artificial logos,
which is reasoning from the art of speaking. This might be derived
from indications, arguments, or examples (including nature, fables,
similes). Jesus' public speaking often included parables as examples,
while He taught His disciples. The reason for speaking in parables,
however, was not to persuade but to illustrate the dynamics of Kingdom of God
living, which often brought opposition from the audience or left them pondering the 'riddle.'
3. derived from topics (topoi), which are
the secret places from which arguments are drawn. The skilled rhetorician quickly flipped through the many possible topics to find an appropriate way to develop his arguments. These were organised into larger topical categories:
a. Common topics, that is, the possible or
impossible, past fact/s, future fact/s, degree (more or less), persons (birth,
nationality, country, sex, age, education, bodily constitution, fortune,
condition, natural dispositions, occupation, personal ambitions, past life and
utterances), causes, places and time, resources, manner, definition, genus, species,
difference, property, elimination, division, beginnings, increase,
consummation, likes and unlikes, contradictions, consequences, what is
efficient, effects, results and comparisons.
b. Topics
appropriate for the different species of speech. Ancient rhetoric gave great consideration to
this, and many topics were identified and memorised by students.
Inasmuch as persuasive speech uses
invention to persuade an audience rather than to present the truth, Paul
emphasised that he was not like rhetoricians.
While preachers typically do not construct sermons with types of ‘invention’
in mind in the way an ancient orator might have done, they do often focus
considerably on invention when the idea is to provide an artfully persuasive sermon.
E. Style:
Preachers typically discover
their style of speaking, although this can be learned. Ancient rhetoricians spoke of ‘style’ in
terms of choices a speaker may consider to persuade the audience for a particular
type of speech. As with topics,
rhetorical handbooks from antiquity point out a great many options. Two categories that were used are figures of
thought and figures of speech (schemes and tropes). Also, a speech could be delivered in a high (flowery), medium, or low style of rhetoric.
F. Delivery:
Delivery had to do with actions,
posture, articulation of one’s voice, and so forth. This is one of the matters that distinguishes
preaching from teaching. I once knew a
preacher that practiced his sermons over and over again in front of a mirror to
try to get his delivery just right for the sermon. Teachers simply do not do this. They may benefit from some consideration of delivery,
but this is a minor matter. I might
suggest from personal observation that Americans and Irish are more concerned
with delivery than the British, although the major differences are more
personal perhaps than cultural.
Conclusion
These six areas of rhetoric explain how antiquity understood the art of persuasion. The point of this outline of rhetoric has been to demonstrate ways in which preaching is often understood along these lines, even if preachers are not trained to this level of rhetoric. As such, preaching is different from teaching. The detailed attention to persuasion (preaching) does not have to be at odds with detailed attention to instruction and interpretation (teaching), but it often is.
Imagine a preacher who has spent twenty-five years preaching ‘big idea’
sermons. The parishioners do not see the
work of interpretation in his or her sermons but are persuaded by the rhetoric of the preacher. The preacher may well do his or her work ‘in the
kitchen’ of exegesis and canonical interpretation. When the preacher retires, the
search committee may well look for another minister whose sermons have an
equally powerful effect on the audience. They have not learned, however, to listen for correct interpretation from the text (exegesis). The need for rhetorically powerful sermons is particularly important for large churches with large
budgets—keeping the large audience by means of a powerful speaker is
important. A friend many years ago was
the son of a preacher of a large church.
The church had an insurance policy on the minister’s voice: if he could
not preach on a given Sunday, the attendance and offering went down. Every large church is built around a powerful
rhetorician and struggles immensely when the minister retires. Of course, some succeed in finding a replacement,
and the key is to find another rhetorician.
In 1 Thessalonians 1-2, Paul explains
that his ministry was not based on rhetoric, the art of persuasion. His reasoning was not inventive but based on
the truth. His authority was simply the
Word of God. His emotion was founded in
the deep relationships he quickly formed out of his passionate desire for others
to be saved and the bond of love in the Christian community. I am convinced that a lifetime of listening
to sermons that are crafted by persuasive artistry and meant to capture an
audience produces little fruit and is a reason for the unhealthiness of
contemporary Evangelicalism. Would that
ministers remember their calling, to be ministers of the Word of God. The teaching ministry makes of the church a
community of interpreters themselves, and ones who know and search the
Scriptures.
Recommended:
Corbett, Edward P. J. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998.
Kennedy, George. Classical Rhetoric and its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times. Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina, 1999.
Kennedy, George. New Testament Interpretation through Rhetorical Criticism. Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina, 1984.
Watson, Duane. Persuasive Artistry: Studies in New Testament Rhetoric in Honor of George A. Kennedy. Sheffield, 1992.
Primary Sources:
Aristotle. The Art of Rhetoric
Cassiodorus, Institutiones.
Cicero, De Oratore (plus his earlier De Inventione)
Demosthenes. Orations.
Herennius. De Ratione Dicendi.
Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Vols. 1 - 4.
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